In the current essay, guest contributor, Komal Ahmed, presents highlights from research that explored how religious minority women in Pakistan, especially Christians, Hindus and Sikhs, experience overlapping forms of gender‑based violence that span domestic, economic and digital spaces, and how these are exacerbated by systemic discrimination and institutional neglect. Despite constitutional equality guarantees, such women face widespread abuse and are often excluded from legal protection, law enforcement and other services. The findings underscore an urgent need for intersectional, culturally informed and multidimensional interventions, as well as engagement with faith leaders, to better protect and promote the safety and integration of minority women in Pakistan.
Gender-based violence (GBV) in Pakistan poses complex challenges, especially for female religious minorities, including Christians, Hindus and Sikhs. These women face intersecting forms of violence defined by gender, religion, caste, socio-economic status and systemic discrimination. These intersecting factors increase their vulnerability to abuse in the domestic, economic and digital spheres. Despite constitutional guarantees of equality, religious minority women often face neglect and exclusions from legal protections and social services.
According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), nearly 70% of women have experienced domestic violence, although reporting is considerably lower among minority groups due to fear of discrimination and retaliation (HRCP Annual Report, 2021). Economic abuse, including the withholding of income or employment opportunities, is also widespread, exacerbated by poverty and limited educational opportunities in minority communities (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023). Additionally, digital harassment is a rising issue, with minority women activists being increasingly targeted by online abuse and hate speech, with most digital spaces in Pakistan eschewing any type of moderation or regulation. These challenges highlight the urgent need for intersectional, culturally sensitive and faith-appropriate strategies to combat GBV against minority women in Pakistan.
Research Background and Methodology
My ongoing PhD research at the Auckland University of Technology investigates the complex and interconnected forms of abuse faced by minority women survivors and activists across Pakistan. To date, I have conducted 20 semi-structured interviews with survivors and experts from diverse religious communities, including Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, as well as individuals from the Muslim majority. Additionally, I have held 15 key informant interviews with activists, religious leaders and political representatives working closely with these groups. An anonymous online survey with minority women across Pakistan was also conducted to achieve broader representation (Ahmed, forthcoming). This diverse sample provides rich qualitative data and insight into minority women’s lived experiences, coping strategies and systemic barriers to justice and an abuse-free life.
This study employed qualitative methods grounded in intersectional feminist frameworks to explore the lived experiences of minority women facing gender-based violence in Pakistan. Thematic analysis was applied to semi-structured interviews, which were conducted mainly through secure online platforms to ensure participant safety. Participants were minority women aged 18 and above who survived domestic or economic abuse and were active in community or advocacy networks, providing diverse perspectives.
By centring historically marginalised voices, the research fills gaps in understanding how religious nationalist tendencies and agendas, caste hierarchies and patriarchal norms combine to sustain violence in and the systemic neglect of minority communities. It highlights how survivors negotiate, resist, and sometimes tolerate abuse within restrictive social contexts. This approach contributes to feminist scholarship and offers insights for culturally sensitive policy interventions to protect and empower minority women.
Domestic Violence: Normalisation and Neglect
The accounts collected from the participants demonstrate that gender-based violence against minority women is underpinned, and potentially amplified, by wider societal problems and inequalities and institutional failures. The intersection of minority status, caste and socio-economic deprivation creates a uniquely hostile environment with multiple layers of oppression and vulnerability. The findings underscore the urgent need for reforms to overcome current barriers to justice and safety for minority women in Pakistan.
For example, a 26-year-old Hindu woman from Sindh, speaking of her abusive partner, recounted: “He said [that] no one would listen because we are impoverished Hindus. When I called for help, neither the police nor neighbours responded.” This testimony highlights how everyday violence within the home intersects with broader structural neglect to result in minority women’s continuing abuse. Institutions mandated to protect citizens, such as law enforcement, often fail minority women due to entrenched religious biases, caste discrimination and economic marginalisation. Many survivors report that seeking help results in indifference or outright dismissal, deepening their isolation and sense of helplessness.
Numerous factors reinforce the problem of domestic violence, including a widespread normalisation of women’s abuse in Pakistani society at large. Patriarchal interpretations of Islamic and Christian texts reinforce male dominance and silence survivors. For example, a Christian woman from Lahore reported: “My husband knew the police wouldn’t help a Christian woman. They told me to go to my Church for help instead.” As this account suggests, faith-based communities sometimes serve as the only, yet limited, source of support that abused religious minority women face in Pakistan. Findings from the online survey conducted by the author support these insights: about 68% reported physical or emotional abuse, but only 15% reported it to police due to fear of discrimination. Nearly 72% faced community and family pressure to stay silent, and over 60% felt religious leaders were passive or unwilling to intervene. These findings highlight the urgent need to address structural and cultural factors that silence minority women and block their access to justice.
Economic Abuse and Marginalisation
Economic abuse is a critical but often overlooked aspect of gender-based violence against minority women in Pakistan. Many survivors remain trapped in abusive relationships due to economic dependence on their partners, which is the result of women’s systemic exclusions from education, training and formal employment. Poverty disproportionately affects minority communities, limiting especially women’s financial autonomy and access to essential resources. This economic vulnerability restricts women’s ability to leave abusive situations and to seek legal or protective support, which often requires money for transportation, legal fees, or counselling. Several participants shared that their husbands controlled the household finances, denying them access even to basic necessities or healthcare. Survey data from minority women survivors highlight these challenges: about 75% reported economic abuse, such as denial of financial resources or forced unemployment, while over 60% identified economic dependency as the main barrier to leaving abusive relationships. Many also lacked awareness of or access to social welfare programmes offering economic relief. These findings call for holistic interventions addressing economic empowerment alongside legal protections, such as skills training, microfinance support and inclusive education, to help minority women regain autonomy to safety.
Social Media and Digital Harassment
An emerging and concerning form of gender-based violence among minority women in Pakistan is digital abuse. While social media offer a useful platform for advocacy and community mobilisation, they also expose minority women to targeted online harassment, threats and defamation campaigns rooted in intersecting prejudices that find origin in religion, gender and caste. This makes minority women vulnerable to cyberbullying, doxxing (publicly revealing personal information without consent) and hate speech – to name a few forms of digital abuse. Interviews with minority women survivors revealed the psychological toll that such digital violence can have on them. Many described coordinated campaigns against them to silence their voices, intimidate them and drive them out of public spaces, increasing their social isolation. One Hindu activist shared that online threats escalated to in-person intimidation, making her fearful for her safety. These incidents reflect how digital spaces can extend offline oppression, reinforcing patriarchal structures and religious nationalist agendas. The survey data support this trend: about 40% of respondents reported online harassment, with over 70% saying it harmed their mental health or limited their online activity. As digital engagement grows, addressing digital GBV is crucial to protecting minority women’s rights and wellbeing in Pakistan.
Study Implications
The study’s findings emphasise the need for:
• Strengthened legal protections sensitive to minority women’s contexts.
• Police and service provider training on intersectional discrimination.
• Economic support programmes for marginalised groups.
• Digital literacy and protections against online abuse.
• Collaboration with religious and community leaders to counter harmful norms.
By documenting the interconnected domestic, economic and digital challenges minority women face in Pakistan, this study contributes to broader feminist and human rights efforts. It underscores the necessity of intersectional, community-based and culturally responsive approaches to effectively combat gender-based violence against marginalised women.
About the Author
Komal Ahmed is an educator and researcher located in Aotearoa New Zealand. She has been working with minority women in Pakistan for more than 11 years and is now finalising a PhD thesis on intersectional gender-related violence at the Auckland University of Technology. Her research investigates how intersecting identities, especially religion, caste and gender, influence women’s experiences of marginalisation and resistance. Komal can be reached at: komalahmed555@gmail.com.
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